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The New Zealand insect fauna 508 Endemism 513 Relationships . . . . . . . . 516 Shore insects . . . . . . . . 519 Ground-dwelling and soil insects 521 Insects of dead wood and fungi. 525 Cave and ground-water insects 526 Alpine insects . . . . . . . . 529 Moss insects ....... . 531 Insects associated with vertebrates 531 Endoparasitic insects 532 Acknowledgements . 533 References . . . . 533 XIV. The freshwater insects by I. D. McLELLAN. 537 Introduction. . 537 Ephemeroptera 537 Plecoptera 540 Odonata .. 545 546 Megaloptera. Mecoptera . 547 Trichoptera . 547 Chironomidae . 551 Blepharoceridae 552 Simuliidae . . 555 Thaumaleidae . 556 Coleoptera . . 557 Population comparisons 557 References . . . . . . 558 XV. The insects in relation to plants by J. S. DUGDALE 561 Abstract .................. . 561 Introduction. . . . 561 Some characteristics of insect-hostplant associations in New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 . . . Associations involving warm-temperate plant genera ..... 568 Associations involving plant genera not restricted to warm-tem perate communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 . . . Differences between North and South Island, and between these and outlying islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572 . Differences between New Zealand and elsewhere. . . . . 573 Some characteristic phytophage types in New Zealand 575 Defoliators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 . . XIII Flower, fruit and seed-eating insects 576 Gallmakers 578 Miners 578 Live stem borers and shoot apex destroyers 579 New Zealand phytophages as botanists 584 The adventive flora and fauna. 584 Pollinators 586 References 587 XVI. Adaptation and change in Maori culture by R. C.

Biogeography and Ecology in New Zealand

Chapters'Contents.- I. The geological history of New Zealand and its biota.- Bathymetry and structure.- New Zealand and Gondwanaland.- Early Paleozoic.- The New Zealand geosyncline.- Permian biogeography.- Triassic.- Lower Jurassic (Liassic).- Middle and Upper Jurassic.- The Rangitata orogeny and the disruption of Gondwanaland.- Cretaceous.- Cenozoic.- Paleocene.- Eocene.- Oligocene.- Lower Miocene.- Middle and Upper Miocene.- Pliocene.- Early Pleistocene.- Late Pleistocene.- Conditions during Glacial stages.- Origin of alpine biota.- Interglacial climates.- Post-Glacial (Holocene) history.- The coming of man.- Biogeographic elements.- The fossil records and its defects.- Attempt at biogeographic synthesis.- Epilogue.- Acknowledgements.- References.- Postscript.- II. The climate.- The broad-scale atmospheric environment of New Zealand.- Energy balance.- Wind circulation and barometric pressure patterns.- Temperature of the air at sea level.- Temperature in the upper air.- Large scale transient features of the circulation.- Small scale disturbances, weather distribution.- Meteorological situations.- Elements of the surface climate of New Zealand.- General.- Solar radiation and sunshine.- Sunshine duration.- Reflectivity, net radiation.- Precipitation.- Variability of precipitation.- Evaporation and evapotranspiration, water balance and agricultural drought.- Snow.- Relative humidity, dew and fog.- Surface wind.- Air temperature.- Frost.- Visibility, air pollution, atmospheric chemistry.- Long term climate fluctuations and trends.- Mountain and local climates and microclimates.- Bioclimatology in New Zealand.- Climate and the distribution of plants.- Climate and agricultural and forest productivity.- Aerial transport of organisms.- Fungal disease, animal health and climate.- Weather catastrophes.- Conclusion.- Acknowledgement.- References.- III. The distribution and properties of soils, and their biota.- Distribution and properties of New Zealand soils.- Brown-grey earths.- Yellow-grey earths.- Yellow-brown earths.- Podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols.- Gley podzols.- Rendzinas and rendzic inter grades.- Yellow-brown sands.- Yellow-brown pumice soils.- Yellow-brown loams.- Red and brown loams, and brown granular loams and clays.- Organic soils.- Gley soils.- Recent soils.- Steepl and soils.- Plants nutrients in New Zealand soils.- The changing soil.- Influence of the Maori.- Influence of the European.- Distribution and ecology of the soil biota.- The microflora.- The microfauna.- The macrofauna.- Acknowledgements.- References.- IV. Flora and Vegetation.- Relationships of the flora.- Life forms and leaves.- Flowers and fruits.- Coastal plants.- The forests.- General.- Conifer mixed-hardwood forests.- Beech forests.- Exotic conifer forests.- Scrub and timberline.- The grasslands.- General.- Short-tussock grassland.- Tall-tussock grassland.- Non-indigenous grasslands.- Swamps and bogs.- Alpine vegetation.- Adventive plants.- The outlying islands.- Acknowledgements.- References.- V. The amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.- The amphibians.- The reptiles.- Composition of the reptile fauna.- Endemic reptiles of special interest.- Origin of the New Zealand lizards.- Evolutionary trends within the New Zealand region.- Distribution and ecology of New Zealand lizards.- The birds.- Composition of the avifauna.- Endemic birds of special interest.- Origins of the avifauna.- Evolutionary trends within the New Zealand region.- Distribution and ecology of New Zealand birds.- The mammals.- Composition of the mammal fauna.- Endemic mammals of special interest.- Distribution and ecology of New Zealand mammals.- Recent changes in the vertebrate fauna.- Acknowledgements.- Addenda.- References.- VI. The freshwater fishes.- Family Geotriidae.- Family Retropinnidae.- Family Prototroctidae.- Family Galaxiidae.- Family Anguillidae.- Family Pleuronectidae.- Family Eleotridae.- Family Mugiloididae.- Food of the freshwater fishes.- A zoogeographic synthesis.- Ecological zoogeography.- Historical zoogeography.- References.- VII. The kiwi.- Discovery.- Description.- Calls.- Classification and the geographical distribution of races.- Evolution and affinities.- Ratites and their relationships.- Anatomy.- Physiology.- Longevity.- Displays.- Breeding biology.- Food habits.- Parasites and diseases.- Predators.- Acknowledgements.- References.- VIII. The tuatara.- Evolutionary position.- 'Primitive' and adaptive features.- Distribution and status.- Habitat and Ecology.- References.- IX. The marine benthic ecology and biogeography.- Bathymetry.- The New Zealand continental shelf.- The archibenthal and abyssal regions.- Oceanography.- Currents and convergences.- Surface water masses.- Subsurface water masses.- Biogeographical nomenclature.- Distribution patterns and relationships of selected groups.- Marine algae.- Scleractinia corals.- Gammarid amphipods.- Brachyura.- Echinodermata.- Internal distribution patterns - general conclusions.- The past history of the fauna.- External relationships - general conclusions.- References.- X. The limnology.- Early investigations.- Lakes.- Temperature relationships.- Light penetration.- Chemical characteristics.- Plankton.- Phytoplankton.- Zooplankton.- Littoral and benthic regions.- Productivity and trophic status.- Ponds.- Springs and subterranean waters.- Rivers and streams.- Relationships with other countries.- Conclusion.- Acknowledgements.- References.- XI. The land snail fauna.- Relationship of New Zealand to Indo-Pacific land snail faunal zones.- The age and origins of the New Zealand land snail fauna.- The present state of New Zealand land snail systematics.- Composition of the New Zealand land snail fauna.- Detailed Examination of the land Snail Families.- Hydrocenidae.- Assimineidae.- Liareidae.- Athoracophoridae.- Succineidae.- Achatinellidae.- Bulimulidae.- Paryphantidae.- Punctidae.- New Zealand's geological history and land snail faunal zones.- The subterranean molluscan fauna of New Zealand.- References.- XII. The spiders and harvestmen.- Spiders and harvestmen.- The distribution of harvestmen and spiders within New Zealand.- Relationships of the New Zealand fauna.- Ecology.- Subalpine and alpine.- Riverbeds.- Seashore.- Forest.- References.- XIII. The terrestrial insects.- The New Zealand insect fauna.- Endemism.- Relationships.- Shore Insects.- Ground-dwelling and soil insects.- Insects of dead wood and fungi.- Cave and ground-water insects.- Alpine insects.- Moss insects.- Insects associated with vertebrates.- Endoparasitic insects.- Acknowledgements.- References.- XIV. The freshwater insects.- Ephemeroptera.- Plecoptera.- Odonata.- Megaloptera.- Mecoptera.- Trichoptera.- Chironomidae.- Blepharoceridae.- Simuliidae.- Thaumaleidae.- Coleoptera.- Population comparisons.- References.- XV. The insects in relation to plants.- Abstract.- Some characteristics of insect-hostplant associations in new zealand.- Associations involving warm-temperate plant genera.- Associations involving plant genera not restricted to warm-tem- perate communities.- Differences between north and south island, and between these and outlying islands.- Differences between New Zealand and elsewhere.- Some characteristic phytophage types in New Zealand.- Defoliators.- Flower, fruit and seed-eating insects.- Gallmakers.- Miners.- Live stem borers and shoot apex destroyers.- New Zealand phytophages as botanists.- The adventive flora and fauna.- Pollinators.- References.- XVI. Adaptation and change in maori culture.- The origins of the maori.- Ultimate origins.- Oceanic origins.- Polynesian origins.- East Polynesian adaptation.- New Zealand East Polynesian culture.- Multiple origins or cultural isolation.- Archaic economic adaptation.- Archaic cultural adaptation.- Archaic phases and periods.- New Zealand Maori culture.- Background.- Maori economic adaptation.- Maori cultural adaptation.- Maori culture phases and periods.- Summary.- Conclusion.- References.- XVII. The influence of man on the biota.